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Malus domestica Borkh. |
USDA ARS Memorandum. 1983. R. Spjut to E. E. Terrell. Nomenclature Dilemma for the Cultivated Apple. Sep. 14. 6 pp. In response to Memorandum from E. E. Terrell, Summary of Problem about Name for Apple, Aug. 19, 1983, 1 p. |
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Gallus S., R. Talamini, A. Giacosa, M. Montella, V. Ramazzotti, S. Franceschi, E. Negri, C. La Vecchia. 2005. Does an apple a day keep the oncologist away? Ann. Oncol. 16(11): 1841–1844. “Apples have commonly been described as a healthy food. To understand better their role on risk of cancer at several sites, we analyzed data from multicenter case-control studies conducted between 1991 and 2002 in Italy. The studies included 598 patients with incident cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx, 304 of the oesophagus, 460 of the larynx, 1953 of the colorectum, 2569 of the breast, 1031 of the ovary and 1294 of the prostate. The comparison group included a total of 6629 patients admitted to the same network of hospitals as cases for acute, non-neoplastic diseases. Multivariate odds ratios (OR) were obtained with allowance for age, sex, study center, education, body mass index, tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, total energy intake, vegetable consumption and physical activity. RESULTS: Compared with subjects reporting consumption of <1 apple/day, the ORs for > or =1 apple/day were 0.79 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.62-1.00] for cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx, 0.75 (95% CI 0.54-1.03) for oesophagus, 0.80 (95% CI 0.71-0.90) for colorectum, 0.58 (95% CI 0.44-0.76) for larynx, 0.82 (95% CI 0.73-0.92) for breast, 0.85 (95% CI 0.72-1.00) for ovary and 0.91 (95% CI 0.77-1.07) for prostate. CONCLUSION: This investigation found a consistent inverse association between apples and risk of various cancers.” Gosse F., S. Guyot, S. Roussi, A. Lobstein, B. Fischer, N. Seiler and F. Raul. 2005. Chemopreventive properties of apple procyanidins on human colon cancer-derived metastatic SW620 cells and in a rat model of colon carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis 26(7): 1291–1295. “Apples contain several classes of polyphenols: monomers (catechins, epicatechins) and oligomers/polymers, such as the procyanidins. Our aim was (i) to study anti-proliferative mechanisms on human metastatic colon carcinoma (SW620 cells) of apple polyphenol fractions (monomers or procyanidins) and (ii) to evaluate their anti-carcinogenic properties in vivo. Two polyphenol-enriched fractions were isolated from apples. Fraction non-procyanidins contained 73% phenolic monomers and no procyanidins, while fraction procyanidins contained 78% procyanidins and no monomers. Inhibition of SW620 cell growth was only observed with fraction P (IC50 = 45 microg/ml). After a 24-h exposure of cells to fraction P, protein kinase C activity was inhibited by 70% and a significant increase in extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 and c-jun N-terminal kinases expression was observed together with the down-regulation of polyamine biosynthesis and the activation of caspase-3. Colon carcinogenesis was induced in rats by intraperitoneal injections of azoxymethane, once a week for 2 weeks. Seven days after the last injection, Wistar rats received fraction P (0.01%) dissolved in drinking water. After 6 weeks of treatment, the colon of rats receiving procyanidins showed a significant (P < 0.01) reduction of the number of preneoplastic lesions when compared with controls receiving water. The total number of hyperproliferative crypts and of aberrant crypt foci was reduced by 50% in rats receiving 0.01% apple procyanidins in their drinking water. Our results show that apple procyanidins alter intracellular signaling pathways, polyamine biosynthesis and trigger apoptosis in tumor cells. These compounds antagonize cancer promotion in vivo. In contrast with absorbable drugs, these natural, non toxic, dietary constituents reach the colon where they are able to exert their antitumor effects.” Inaba H., M. Tagashira, T. Kanda, T. Ohno, S. Kawai and A. Amano. 2005. Apple- and hop-polyphenols protect periodontal ligament cells stimulated with enamel matrix derivative from Porphyromonas gingivalis. J. Periodontol. 76(12): 2223–2229. “BACKGROUND: Enamel matrix derivative (EMD) is a tissue regenerative agent used clinically as an adjunct to periodontal surgery. It was previously demonstrated that Porphyromonas gingivalis, a periodontal pathogen, significantly diminished the efficacy of EMD with periodontal ligament (PDL) cells through the proteolytic actions of Arg- and Lys-gingipains (Rgp and Kgp). Thus, antiproteolytic supplements are considered clinically desirable for effective periodontal regenerative therapies. In the present study, we examined apple- (AP) and hop-polyphenols to determine their ability to protect EMD-stimulated PDL cells from P. gingivalis. METHODS: AP, apple condensed tannin (ACT), hop bract polyphenol (HBP), high and low molecular weight fractions of HBP (HMW-HBP and LMW-HBP), and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCg) were used. PDL cells were grown on EMD-coated dishes and infected with P. gingivalis, and cellular migration and proliferation were evaluated with an in vitro assay of wound healing assay in the presence or absence of the polyphenols. RESULTS: Each polyphenol significantly enhanced the viability of PDL cells infected with P. gingivalis, whereas only EGCg demonstrated cytotoxicity. Further, all polyphenols significantly inhibited Rgp activity, with AP, ACT, and HBP more effective toward Kgp. P. gingivalis markedly diminished the migration and proliferation of EMD-stimulated PDL cells, whereas the addition of AP, ACT, HBP, and HMW-HBP significantly protected the cells from bacterial cytotoxicity. In contrast, EGCg and LMW-HBP did not show protective effects. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that AP, ACT, AP, HBP, and HMW-HBP protect EMD-stimulated PDL cells from P. gingivalis and may be therapeutically useful supplements for EMD therapy.” Liu R. H., J. Liu and B. Chen. 2005. Apples prevent mammary tumors in rats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53(6): 2341–2343. “Regular consumption of fruits and vegetables has been consistently shown to be associated with reduced risk of developing chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. Apples are commonly consumed and are the major contributors of phytochemicals in human diets. It was previously reported that apple extracts exhibit strong antioxidant and antiproliferative activities and that the major part of total antioxidant activity is from the combination of phytochemicals. Phytochemicals, including phenolics and flavonoids, are suggested to be the bioactive compounds contributing to the health benefits of apples. Here it is shown that whole apple extracts prevent mammary cancer in a rat model in a dose-dependent manner at doses comparable to human consumption of one, three, and six apples a day. This study demonstrated that whole apple extracts effectively inhibited mammary cancer growth in the rat model; thus, consumption of apples may be an effective strategy for cancer protection.” Peri L., D. Pietraforte, G. Scorza, A. Napolitano, V. Fogliano and M. Minetti. 2005. Apples increase nitric oxide production by human saliva at the acidic pH of the stomach: a new biological function for polyphenols with a catechol group? Free Radic. Biol. Med. 39(5): 668–681. “Dietary inorganic nitrate is secreted in saliva and reduced to nitrite by bacterial flora. At the acidic pH of the stomach nitrite is present as nitrous acid in equilibrium with nitric oxide (*NO), and other nitrogen oxides with nitrating and nitrosating activity. *NO in the stomach exerts several beneficial effects, but nitrosating/nitrating species have been implicated as a possible cause of epithelial neoplasia at the gastroesophageal junction. We investigated the effects of apple extracts on *NO release by human saliva at pH 2. A water extract obtained from apple homogenate increased *NO release caused by acidification of saliva. Data show that polyphenols were responsible for this activity, with chlorogenic acid and (+)-catechin the most active and concentrated species. However, ferulic acid, a hydroxycinnamic acid with only one aromatic hydroxyl group, did not increase *NO release. Fructose, the most representative sugar in apples, was also inactive. Interestingly, ascorbic acid in saliva induced a SCN(-)-enhanced burst of *NO but, unlike apple, the release was transient. The simultaneous addition of ascorbic acid and apple extract caused a burst of *NO followed by the increased steady-state level characteristic of saliva containing apple extract. Chlorogenic acid and (+)-catechin, but not ferulic acid, formed o-semiquinone radicals and nitrated polyphenols, suggesting the scavenging of *NO(2) by o-semiquinones. Our results propose that some apple polyphenols not only inhibit nitrosation/nitration but also promote *NO bio-availabilty at the gastric level, a previously unappreciated function.” Veeriah S., T. Kautenburger, N. Habermann, J. Sauer, H. Dietrich, F. Will and B. L. Pool-Zobel. 2006. Apple flavonoids inhibit growth of HT29 human colon cancer cells and modulate expression of genes involved in the biotransformation of xenobiotics. Mol. Carcinog. 45(3): 164–174. “Flavonoids from fruits and vegetables probably reduce risks of diseases associated with oxidative stress, including cancer. Apples contain significant amounts of flavonoids with antioxidative potential. The objectives of this study were to investigate such compounds for properties associated with reduction of cancer risks. We report herein that apple flavonoids from an apple extract (AE) inhibit colon cancer cell growth and significantly modulate expression of genes related to xenobiotic metabolism. HT29 cells were treated with AE at concentrations delivering 5-50 microM of one of the major ingredients, phloridzin ("phloridzin-equivalents," Ph.E), to the cell culture medium, with a synthetic flavonoid mixture mimicking the composition of the AE or with 5-100 microM individual flavonoids. HT29 cell growth was inhibited by the complex extract and by the mixture. HT29 cells were treated with nontoxic doses of the AE (30 microM, Ph.E) and after 24 h total RNA was isolated to elucidate patterns of gene expression using a human cDNA-microarray (SuperArray) spotted with 96 genes of drug metabolism. Treatment with AE resulted in an upregulation of several genes (GSTP1, GSSTT2, MGST2, CYCP4F3, CHST5, CHST6, and CHST7) and downregulation of EPHX1, in comparison to the medium controls. The enhanced transcriptional activity of GSTP1 and GSTT2 genes was confirmed with real-time qRT-PCR. On the basis of the pattern of differential gene expression found here, we conclude that apple flavonoids modulate toxicological defense against colon cancer risk factors. In addition to the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, this could be a mechanism of cancer risk reduction.” |
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